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A cooperative proposal by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
and the U.S. Geological Survey
15 December 2006
Co-principal Investigators:
1Margaret R. Petersen, Alaska Science Center, U.S. Geological Survey, 1011 E. Tudor Road, Anchorage, AK 99503; 907-8786-3359.
G. Vernon Byrd, Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 95 Sterling Highway, Suite 1, Homer, AK 99603; 907-235-4608.
Sandra Talbot, Alaska Science Center, U.S. Geological Survey, 1011 E. Tudor Road, Anchorage, AK 99503; 907-8786-3359.
Heather Wilson, Migratory Bird Management, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1011 E. Tudor Road Anchorage, AK 99503; 907-786-3831.
Tim Bowman, Migratory Bird Management, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1011 E. Tudor Road Anchorage, AK 99503; 907-786-3569.
1Primary contact.
INTRODUCTION
The spread of the Highly Pathogenetic Avian Influenza Virus (HPAI) H5N1 within Asia, to the Near East, North Africa, and Europe portends the inevitability that the virus will reach North America. The spread of HPAI H5N1 has resulted in threats to human health, negative economic impacts in the poultry industry, as well as mortality of wild birds. Die-offs of migratory birds and the presence of the virus in apparently healthy birds (Chen et al. 2005, Ducatez et al. 2006) suggest that HPAI H5N1 can be transported by migratory birds. The virus may be very virulent and result in high mortality in some species, yet be carried by some individuals. The transfer of HPAI H5N1 from wild, migratory birds to domestic fowl requires that at some point in their life cycles the distributions of domestic and wild birds overlap. Thus, a basic understanding of distribution and movement patterns of birds migrating between North America and Asia is needed, however for most species is unknown (Nairobi Conference 2005, Convention on Migratory Species 2005). This distribution information is necessary to derive an estimate of the probability wild birds and domestic fowl co-occur, thus the potential for HPAI H5N1 spreading to domestic fowl in North America by this route.
A recent study has shown that direct transmission of influenza A/H11 virus from wild, migratory birds to humans has occurred (Gill et al 2006). In this study, the people infected were a duck hunter that handled 100’s of birds each year and two professional biologists who banded large numbers of ducks and geese each year. This transmission reinforces the necessity of understanding the movements of migratory birds that spend time in Alaska and East Asia, as subsistence hunters in Alaska have extensive and prolonged exposure to migratory waterfowl. Thus, the study of inter-continental and inter/intra-specific transmission among migratory birds in Alaska is of particular local and continental importance.
Development of predictive model to describe the potential spread of HPAI H5N1 is dependent on knowledge of the probability of an individual interacting with others who are infected plus knowledge on the proportion of the population of interest that frequents areas where HPAI H5N1 is present. Pacific common eiders (Somateria mollissima v-nigrum) are found wintering and breeding in Northeast Asia, Alaska, and Canada (Fig. 1). However, the extent of mixing in wintering areas is unknown. There is evidence that birds occur in large flocks while staging during migration and just prior to nesting (Petersen unpub. data); this can result in further spreading of the virus among individuals. An interagency strategic plan for HPAI H5N1 was developed for Alaska, and the common eider was included as a priority species for monitoring because of the link between Alaska and Asia (Interagency Avian Influenza Working Group 2006). The link of common eiders to northeast Asia and the potential for affecting human health (eiders are an important subsistence food in Alaska) reinforces the necessity of understanding distribution and movement patterns of this species for modeling and controlling the spread of the virus.
 For many species of waterfowl, their distribution and migration patterns are described from returns of bands by hunters. However, too few Pacific common eiders have been banded and almost no bands recovered to enable similar types of analyses. This very low return rate is in part a regional problem and only now are band return data becoming available. Thus, other means are needed to gather migration and distribution data. The use of satellite transmitters (also known as platform transmitting terminals or PTTs) has provided extensive information on the distribution (wintering and staging locations) and timing of movements (spring and autumn migration) of individuals throughout their life cycle (Petersen et al. 1995, 1999, 2006, Petersen and Flint 2002). Data at the individual level provides a more complete picture of distribution and movements of populations. Petersen and Flint (2002) showed that nesting populations of birds from two of the four major nesting areas wintered in separate areas in Russia and Alaska. Thus, it is likely that different populations have separate potentials for coming in contact with birds infected with HPAI H5N1.
We propose to integrate information on the recent genetic and contemporary relationships among populations of common eiders based on identification of population movement and yearly movement patterns of individuals. The spread of HPAI H5N1 and many viruses is dependent on the dispersion of populations and movements. Based on these movement patterns we can then evaluate the likelihood of avian viruses migrating to North America via common eiders. When integrated with knowledge of their distribution and use by people in Alaska, a plan to reduce exposure of HPAI H5N1 from this migratory bird to humans can then be developed.
Population status of the Pacific Common Eider
The interrelationships of groups of birds in Alaska to those wintering in Asia are incompletely described (Fig. 1). Based on studies in Europe and North America, birds are either resident, migrate short distances, or move > 1,000 km from breeding to wintering grounds.
Northern Alaska and western Canadian Arctic – The population size and distribution of common eiders that nest along the Beaufort Sea coast is perhaps the best described group. The latest estimates suggest there are 72,606 birds in this group, and this population had declined by 53% between 1976 and 1996 (Suydam et al. 2000). Location data of birds marked with satellite transmitters in the eastern (Canada) and western (Alaska) portions of the Beaufort Sea suggest that most individuals migrate 1,200 – 2,200 km to winter areas along coastal southeast and southern Chukotka Peninsula (Petersen and Flint 2002, L. Dickson pers. com.). In addition, wintering birds have also been reported at islands in the Bering Sea and further south along coastal Russia.
Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta – The nesting population of the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta is slowly increasing and is currently estimated at 11,000 eiders. These birds winter in ice-free areas of western Alaska and Bristol Bay 100 – 600 km from their nesting sites.
Seward Peninsula – Nothing is known about the population status and migration patterns of birds breeding along the Seward Peninsula. Based on our current knowledge of distribution patterns of other subspecies of common eiders in Canada and Europe, we suggest that common eiders which nest on the Seward Peninsula migrate 500 – 1,000 km to wintering areas in Russia and western Alaska.
Aleutian Islands – Currently, 22,000 birds are believed to breed within the Aleutian Islands. The distribution in winter of birds that nest in the Aleutian Islands is unknown. Based on past and current studies of common eiders we would predict that birds found within the Aleutian Islands would occur primarily within the Aleutians and southeast Russia. It is also likely that birds found in the Kuril Islands and Japan are from this group. Birds in the western Aleutian Islands are closer to these wintering areas in southeast Russia than eiders breeding further north in northeastern Russia.
OBJECTIVES
Our primary objectives are to:
- Determine the relative potential for each population of common eiders breeding in Alaska to be exposed to avian influenza based on information of their movement patterns;
- Evaluate historic movements, thus the probability of long-term intermixing, among eider populations by analyzing genetic material;
- Determine the probability of transmission among individuals subsequently moving to different areas (thereby spreading the virus) based on contemporary movement patterns.
METHODS
During the next two years we will focus our efforts on marking individuals and gathering genetic samples. We will target birds in nesting areas with the least amount of information and the highest probability of spending some portion of their life in eastern Asia. This would be birds nesting throughout the Aleutian Islands and the Seward Peninsula.
We will capture nesting adult females from their nests (samples from known breeding population) in the Seward Peninsula and the Central Aleutians. All birds captured will be weighed, measured and marked with tarsus bands, and blood samples will be taken for genetic and contaminant analysis and a cloacal swab will be taken for determining the presence and absence of HPAI H5N1 and other avian viruses. Ducks from each location will be marked with implanted PTTs with percutaneous antennas using the surgical technique first described by Korschgen et al. (1996) and subsequently modified for sea ducks (Mulcahy and Esler 1999). This technique has proved successful in locating areas where birds concentrate and describing their movement patterns in Russia and eastern Asia where access is difficult (Petersen et al. 1995, 1999, 2006; Petersen and Flint 2000).
We will deploy 60 transmitters manufactured by Microwave Telemetry Incorporated (Columbia, Maryland, USA) (30 transmitters at each location) to determine wintering and staging areas and movement chronology. Transmitters will be programmed to provide locations for two years (June 2007 – August 2009; June 2008 – August 2010), thus provide information on individual variation in movement patterns. A sample of 25 individuals is needed to estimate population distribution among two states with statistical certainty (Lindberg and Walker 2006). Based on survival rates and transmitter failure rates from other studies, sufficient sample sizes will remain by end of the two-year life of the transmitter.
Preliminary data will be received daily and final locations monthly from the Argos Data Collection and Location System (Largo, Maryland, USA). A single “best” location will be determined using a sorting program developed by Douglas (2006). We will describe areas used by individuals and groups of individuals using Kernal home-range calculations.
Contemporary mixing of populations will be based on movements of individuals over a two-year period. This information can then be integrated with that of other nesting populations in western and northern Alaska (Petersen and Flint 2002) and breeding areas within the Aleutian Islands (Petersen unpub. data) to provide a more complete picture of the potential spread of H5N1 among the populations of eiders and the likely locations where they may come into contact with domestic fowl.
We will examine genetic information from breeding groups within the Aleutian Islands. Genetic data will be collected from DNA extracted from feather samples from 30 nests of each location, and blood samples from 60 individuals in which we will follow their movements (see below). Laboratory and analytical methods will follow those listed in Sonsthagen (2006). When the analysis is completed, we will be able to describe fine scale sub-structuring among and between locations, thus the likelihood of population mixing (thus virus transmission).
PROJECT STATUS
In 2006, we collected 76 cloacal and 26 blood plasma samples from common eiders nesting in the western Aleutians (Near Islands) and implanted 26 satellite transmitters in adult female eiders to determine their distribution and movement patterns. All samples were submitted for analysis. We collected genetic samples (blood) from all birds captured and feather samples from a minimum of 30 individuals at each of the four islands, thereby completing the genetic sampling within the Near Islands. Twenty-six blood samples were also taken for heavy metal analysis.
Literature cited
Chen, H., G. J. D. Smith, S. Y. Zhang, K. Qin, J. Wang, K. S. Li, R. G. Webster, J. S. M. Peiris, and Y. Guan. 2005. H5N1 virus outbreak in migratory waterfowl. Nature 436:191-192.
Convention on Migratory Species. 2005. Migrating Species and Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza. [pdf file]
Douglas, D.C. 2006. The Douglas Argos-Filter Algorithm. U.S. Geological Survey, Anchorage, AK.
Ducatez, M. F., C. M. Olinger, A. Owoade, S. De Landtsheer, W. Ammerlaan H. Niesters, A. Osterhaus, R. Fouchier, and C. Muller. 2006. Avian flu: multiple introduction of H5N1 in Nigeria. Nature 442:37.
Gill, J. S., R. Webby, M. J. R. Gilchrist, and G. C. Gray. 2006. Avian influenza among waterfowl hunters and wildlife professionals. Emerging Infectious Diseases 12(8):1284-1286.
Interagency Asian H5N1 Early Detection Working Group. 2005. An early detection system for Asian H5N1 Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza in wild migratory birds. U.S. interagency strategic plan. Final Draft.
Interagency Avian Influenza Working Group. 2006. Sampling protocol for highly pathogenic Asian H5N1 avian influenza in migratory birds in Alaska. Interagency planning report, Anchorage, AK.
Korschgen, C. E., K. P. Kenow, A. Gendron-Fitzpatrik, W. L. Green, and F. J. Dein. 1996. Implanting intra-abdominal radiotransmitters with external whip antennas in ducks. J. Wildl. Manage. 60:132-137.
Lindberg, M. S. and J. Walker. 2006. Satellite telemetry in avian research and management: sample size considerations. J. Wildl. Manag.:in press.
Mulcahy, D. M. and D. Esler. 1999. Surgical and immediate postrelease mortality of harlequin ducks (Histrionicus histrionicus) implanted with abdominal radio transmitters with percutaneous antennae. J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 30:397-401.
Nairobi Conference. 2005. Conference of the Convention on Migratory Species – Nairobi, Kenya, 21 to 25 November 2005.
Petersen, M. R., J. O. Bustnes, and G. H. Systad. 2006. Breeding and moulting locations and migration patterns of the Atlantic population of Steller’s eiders Polysticta stelleri as determined from satellite telemetry. J. Avian Biol. 37:58-68.
Petersen, M. R., D. C. Douglas, and D. M. Mulcahy. 1995. Use of implanted satellite transmitters to locate spectacled eiders at-sea. Condor 97:276-278.
Petersen, M. R. and P. L. Flint. 2002. Population structure of Pacific common eiders breeding in Alaska. Condor 104:780-787.
Petersen, M. R., W. W. Larned, and D. C. Douglas. 1999. At-sea distribution of spectacled eiders: a 120-year-old mystery resolved. Auk 116:1009-1020.
Petersen, M. R., B. J. McCaffery, and P. L. Flint. 2003. Post-breeding distribution of long-tailed ducks Clangula hyemalis from the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, Alaska. Waterfowl 54:103-113.
Sonthagen, S. A. 2006. Population genetic structure and phylogeography of common eiders (Somateria mollissima). Ph. D. dissertation, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, AK.
Suydam, D. L. Dickson, J. B. Fadely, and L. T. Quakenbush. 2000. Population declines of king and common eiders of the Beaufort Sea. Condor 102:219-222
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